Ice ages are defined as long periods of time characterized by significantly colder global climates and the expansion of massive continental ice sheets. These global cooling cycles are driven by complex interactions involving changes in the Earth's orbital parameters, solar intensity, and atmospheric composition, which collectively influence the distribution of solar energy across the planet. During these periods, vast quantities of water are locked up in glaciers and ice caps, leading to dramatic drops in global sea levels and fundamentally reshaping continental coastlines and ocean circulation patterns. The cycling between glacial maxima and warmer interglacial periods has been a primary force shaping the planet's geography, biodiversity, and atmospheric carbon cycle throughout deep time.